This was another wonderful lecture at the V&A. Jennifer Weardon started by speaking about gothic tapestries.
They were originally very large and displayed on walls in churches and cathedrals, but as building techniques changed and church windows became larger, there was less wall space. Thus tapestries became smaller and designed to be used as long strips, banners, alter frontals. However castles still had the big wall spaces, made of stone and undecorated so these were suited to big tapestries. Castle walls are of varying sizes so tapestry sets were commissioned to fit individual walls. As family fortunes changed, these tapestries would be moved and cut up to be used in other locations. This means unaltered gothic tapestries are rare and there are only 3 complete large sets remaining.
The Apocalypse tapestry owned by the Duke of Anjou, in Angers
The 9 Heroes tapestry at The Cloisters in New York, c 1385
The Devonshire tapestry in the V&A.
Tapestries were popular in Gothic times. The King and Princes moved around the country visiting homes of the aristocracy when following court and for battle. Tapestries were practical, easy to fold and move as the court progressed around the country. When battle ensued, tapestries formed part of the spoil and booty for the winning side.
Tapestry was a marker of wealth. Castles would be cold, monochrome stone coloured, and textiles gave colour, deadened sound, gave heat insulation and demonstrated considerable affluence. They were woven in long strips so they could be moved around as required (like the leaves on a table - extend by adding more leaves when needed). Castles would have hooks high up on the walls, from which the tapestries would hang. Frequently had a small repeat pattern eg fleur de lys. Sometimes bigger tapestries would be hung around a corner of a room. This was evidenced by a picture of a travelling court, where the tapestry clearly is too big for the wall, so is wrapped around the corner. Something never done in museums now!
It is possible there were nomadic tapestry weavers. They would have used a low warp loom as it can be dismantled. However when low warp looms work a design sideways, it means the tapestry wears less well as when hung, the strong warp threads run horizontally and the weaker weft takes the weight of the tapestry. As time went on weft threads became finer. Finer weft gives more detail. In Gothic times, 13-15 threads per inch. Arras weavers used finer silk threads and metal threads. 15-20 colours used. Yellows, browns and greens fade.
Great tapestries require first class materials, excellent designers, skilled weavers, capital, rich customers and bankers. These were abundant in Paris and Flanders, therefore they have a strong tapestry heritage. Comparatively few have a purely religious theme. Where they are, they are often linked to the cult of a local saint. Saints are not marked by their names but have to be identified by symbols within the weaving. For example St Antonius is identified by symbols - he has a halo, mitre, crozier, black and white habit of the Dominican and it was woven c1523, when he was canonised.
Jennifer Weardon touched upon a couple of idiosyncracies of representation in tapestries. A dove is often portrayed heading towards the ear of Mary or other female saint. Apparently Mary heard the word of God and conceived Jesus. Therefore in Gothic times it was believed that conception took place via the ear, so women had to keep their ears covered. And frequently in tapestries the dove is hovering around a woman's ear. Hair was a symbol of strength (from the story of Samson) therefore any portrayal of cutting hair shows the ultimate sacrifice to God. Esther and Ahasuerus, and Susannah and the Elders were favourite subjects in 15th Century. Susannah was often portrayed bathing feet before a meal which was a Germanic habit at the time.
In the 14th century the Apocalypse tapestry was woven. 71 sections remain out of 90. Amazingly they survived the French Revolution, when many affluent artefacts were destroyed. They were defiled by being used to wrap orange trees against frost and to insulate stables but were retrieved later and conserved.
The 9 Heroes tapestry represents Jewish, Christian and Pagan heroes. Joshua, David and Judas are Jewish; Charlemagne, Arthur and Godfrey are Christian, and Hector, Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar are Pagan.
Opus Anglicanum means English Work and describes work made between 1250 and 1350. During this time luxury works of art across Europe focussed on depicting Christianity (money was available in this community to pay for such luxury goods). The precursor to english work has been identified from 850. The designs worked showed influence from figured silks imported from the East. A piece of work has been identified of standing saints and prophets, worked in gold and coloured silk. The lower border of the maniple shows St Cuthbert who was the Bishop of Winchester between 909 and 916. The next significant work known to be worked by English workers, is the Bayeaux Tapestry. This is a secular piece of work.
Apparently there are no churches of St Thomas A Beckett. They are all St Thomas Apostle. Thomas A Beckett challenged King Henry II and was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral, on the King's orders. When Henry VIII came to the throne and was arguing his position with the Pope over divorce of Catherine of Aragon, he decided to demonstrate his power towards those who historically had challenged the King. He instigated an Act of Parliament banning churches of St Thomas A Beckett (still valid today) and most of these changed their name to St Thomas Apostle.
One of the main techniques of Opus Anglicanum is underside couching. This involves the top thread being pulled to the back of the fabric by each stitch of couching thread. It is laborious but gives a much more flexible fabric. Fabric that has been couched on the top of the fabric is too stiff to drape. Also underside couching is lined to protect the couching thread, so often lasts longer as the lining takes the wear, not the threads and top fabric.
A lot of clothing was designed for the cold environment of the English church. Opus Anglicanum is found on buskins - soft knee length boots; chasuble - vestment for mass; cope - full length cape for processions; dalmatic - T-shaped tunic; and mitre - hat, original secular, now used for high rank priests. The Orphrey is a panel(s) of embroidery applied to chasubles, copes and dalmatics. They appear in straight, cross and Y forms, frequently straight orphrey applied to the front, and more elaborate shape at the back. Interestingly the stole was originally a large napkin folded lengthways, used by Romans, used to wipe the hands and face. This evolved into a 4" strip with no practical function, adopted by deacons in 7th century, which became part of liturgical dress for all clergy, worn around the neck.
In medieval times, the majority of the population was illiterate, so imagery was important to tell the stories of the scriptures. Many panels of embroidery, and orphreys, had sequential imagery that told a Christian story. eg John of Thanet panel 1300-1320.
Most Opus Anglicanum workshops were directed by men. 7 year apprenticeship to become a broderer. Gregory of London achieved worldwide recognition when his Opus Anglicanum was presented at the Vatican.
In room 9 at V&A is the Marhull Orphrey, dated 1315-1335. It represents high status and low status people. This can be deduced from long clothes for the rich and short clothes and hose for the poor. Made for the Wokynden family. Patterned hose indiates people of dubious character (not sure why). When the embroidery is wholly covered in embroidery, it is made on a linen ground. When it is motifs and plain background, the ground fabric is silk. English broderers developed split stitch which means contouring around faces gives depth, form and expression. Previously couching had been vertical. Syon Cope 1300-1320 is a wonderful example. Very skilled work. Green and red angels and seraphs on a coloured silk ground.
Opus Anglicanum died out around 1350. The Black Death, 1348-51, swept across Europe wiping out between 20-70% of the population. In London it was estimated 70% of population died. This led to the English workshops having insufficient commissions and insufficient skilled workers led to higher wages. Financial resources were also being put into military campaigns rather than English artefacts. Therefore embroidery was imported instead. There were simpler, therefore cheaper techniques used - reverting to couched work.
By 1430 some European areas were affluent again. The court of Philip the Good in Bruges was awash with money and the Christian Order of the Golden Fleece came into being. Gold thread had become popular - a fine gold strand wound around a silk core. The embroidery of the time was shaded gold work - straight laid gold threads were overworked in colour. Very expensive, and very extravagant in its use of gold thread (as a lot of it was overlaid in colour). Then Or Nue came into being, to make better use of the expensive gold thread. This is where the gold ground is shaped as required, then couched in colour, so less of the gold thread is hidden. This made it more realistic to renaissance art. The immense cost of creating whole scenes in gold thread meant a change in method evolved. By 1470 a scatter motif applied to velvet was more popular.
Black textiles are rare because they degrade quickly. Iron and tannin were used to fix dyes and black required over dyeing, which meant the natural fibres deteriorated quickly.
As Henry VIII had rejected catholicism, the representation of saints in ecclesiastical embroidery was frowned upon within the Protestant Church. Between 1547 and 1603 Edward VI and Elizabeth I reigned as Protestant monarchs, so the market for catholic embroidery about local saints disappeared as the church no longer funded it. Therefore there was no need to tell the stories of saints in cathedrals and on vestments. The purpose of medieval embroidery had largely been superseded, and church embroidery was markedly changed.
